Segala Informasi Internet dan Pemrograman Gunadarma Tugas Tugas Jaringan Komputer Lanjut

Tugas Jaringan Komputer Lanjut

Admin

Tugas Jaringan Komputer lanjut

- Dari 4 teknologi Area jejaring yang luas yang paling banyak digunakan untuk pengolahan data.

- Jelaskan satu persatu dan berikan contohnya.

Jawaban :

Area Jejaring Yang Luas

- Mencakup areal geografis yang luas

-          Sebagai teknologi alternative

a.       Circuit Switching

b.      Packet Switching

c.       Frame Relay

d.      Asynchronous Transfer Mode ( ATM )

A. PACKET SWITCHING

Packet switching adalah metode komunikasi jaringan digital yang ditransmisikan kelompok semua data - terlepas dari konten, tipe struktur, atau - menjadi blok-blok berukuran yang sesuai, yang disebut paket . Fitur-fitur switching paket pengiriman variabel-bit-rate data stream (urutan paket) melalui jaringan bersama. Ketika melintasi adapter jaringan, switch, router dan lainnya node jaringan , paket buffer dan antri, mengakibatkan keterlambatan variabel dan throughput yang tergantung pada beban lalu lintas dalam jaringan.

Kontras packet switching dengan yang lain paradigma jaringan utama, sirkuit switching , sebuah metode yang menyiapkan sejumlah koneksi dedicated dari bit rate konstan dan keterlambatan konstan antara node untuk penggunaan eksklusif selama sesi komunikasi. Dalam hal biaya lalu lintas, misalnya dalam komunikasi selular layanan, sirkuit switching ditandai dengan biaya per unit waktu waktu koneksi, bahkan ketika ada data yang ditransfer, sedangkan packet switching dicirikan dengan biaya per unit informasi.

Dua mode paket utama beralih ada; (1) connectionless packet switching, juga dikenal sebagai datagram switching, dan (2) berorientasi koneksi packet switching, juga dikenal sebagai virtual circuit switching. Dalam kasus pertama setiap paket informasi yang lengkap mencakup pengalamatan atau routing. Paket yang diarahkan secara individual, kadang-kadang menghasilkan jalan yang berbeda dan out-of-order pengiriman. Dalam kasus kedua koneksi didefinisikan dan preallocated di setiap node yang terlibat selama fase koneksi sebelum semua paket ditransfer. Paket termasuk connection identifier daripada informasi alamat, dan disampaikan dalam rangka. Lihat di bawah ini .

Paket modus komunikasi dapat digunakan dengan atau tanpa node forwarding menengah (paket switch atau router ). Dalam semua modus komunikasi paket, sumber daya jaringan yang dikelola oleh statistik multiplexing atau alokasi bandwidth dinamis di mana saluran komunikasi secara efektif dibagi ke dalam jumlah yang sewenang-wenang logis variabel-bit-rate saluran atau data stream. Multiplexing statistik, packet switching dan lainnya toko-dan-maju penyangga memperkenalkan latency bervariasi dan throughput yang dalam transmisi. Setiap aliran logis terdiri dari urutan paket, yang biasanya diteruskan oleh multiplexer dan intermediate node jaringan asynchronous menggunakan first in first-out buffering. Atau, paket-paket dapat diteruskan sesuai dengan penjadwalan untuk beberapa disiplin antrian yang adil , lalu lintas membentuk atau untuk dibedakan atau dijamin kualitas layanan , seperti antrian wajar tertimbang atau ember bocor . Dalam kasus medium fisik bersama, paket-paket dapat disampaikan menurut beberapa modus-paket multiple access skema.

Contoh : Jaringan Telephone

B. CIRCUIT SWITCHING

Dalam dunia telekomunikasi, jaringan circuit switching adalah jaringan yang mengalokasikan sebuah sirkuit (atau kanal) yang dedicated di antara nodes dan terminal untuk digunakan pengguna untuk berkomunikasi. Sirkuit yang dedicated tidak dapat digunakan oleh penelepon lain sampai sirkuit itu dilepaskan, dan koneksi baru bisa disusun. Bahkan jika tidak ada komunikasi berlangsung pada sebuah sirkuit yang dedicated, kanal tersebut tetap tidak dapat digunakan oleh pengguna lain. Kanal yang dapat dipakai untuk hubungan telepon baru disebut sebagai kanal yang idle.

Untuk call setup dan pengendalian (dan keperluan administratif lainnya) dapat digunakan sebuah kanal pensinyalan yang dedicated dari node terakhir ke jaringan. ISDN adalah salah satu layanan yang menggunakan sebuah kanal pensinyalan terpisah. Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) tidak memakai pendekatan ini.

Sebuah metoda untuk membangun, memonitor perkembangan, dan menutup sebuah koneksi adalah dengan memanfaatkan sebuah kanal terpisah untuk keperluan pengontrolan, misalnya untuk links antar telephone exchanges yang menggunakan CCS7 untuk komunikasi call setup dan informasi kontrol dan menggunakan TDM untuk transportasi data di sirkuit tersebut.

Sistem telepon zaman dahulu merupakan contoh penggunaan circuit switching. Pelanggan meminta operator untuk menghubungkan mereka dengan pelanggan lain, yang mungkin berada pada yang sama, atau melalui sebuah inter-exchange link dan operator lain. Dimanapun posisi para pelanggan ini, tetap terbentuk sebuah koneksi antar telepon kedua pelanggan selama hubungan telepon berlangsung. Kawat tembaga yang sedang digunakan untuk koneksi ini tidak dapat digunakan untuk hubungan telepon lain, walaupun para pelanggan ini tidak sedang berbicara dan jalur ini dalam kondisi tidak digunakan (silent).

Akhir-akhir ini sudah dapat dilakukan multiplexing terhadap berbagai koneksi yang terdapat pada sebuah konduktor, namun demikian tetap saja setiap kanal pada link yang mengalami multiplexing selalu berada pada salah satu dari dua kondisi ini : dedicated pada sebuah koneksi telepon, atau dalam keadaan idle. Circuit switching mungkin relatif tidak efisien karena kapasitas jaringan bisa dihabiskan pada koneksi yang sudah dibuat tapi tidak terus digunakan (walaupun hanya sebentar). Di sisi lain, keuntungannya adalah cepatnya membuat koneksi baru, dan koneksi ini bisa digunakan dengan leluasa selama dibutuhkan.

Pendekatan lain adalah packet switching yang membagi data yang akan dikirimkan (misalnya, suara digital atau data komputer) menjadi kepingan-kepingan yang disebut paket, yang lalu dikirimkan melewati sebuah shared network. Jaringan packet switching tidak membutuhkan sebuah sirkuit khusus untuk melakukan koneksi. Dengan pendekatan ini banyak pasangan node dapat melakukan komunikasi yang hampir simultan pada kanal yang sama. Dengan tiadanya koneksi yang dedicated, masing-masing paket yang diberikan dilengkapi dengan alamat tujuan sehingga jaringan dapat mengirimkan paket tersebut ke tujuan yang diinginkan.

Contoh : TCP/IP protokol

C. FRAME RELAY

Frame Relay merupakan standar area jaringan yang luas teknologi yang menentukan link layer fisik dan logis dari saluran telekomunikasi digital menggunakan paket switching metodologi. Awalnya dirancang untuk transportasi di seluruh Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) infrastruktur, dapat digunakan saat ini dalam konteks banyak antarmuka jaringan lainnya.

Penyedia jaringan Frame Relay umumnya menerapkan untuk suara ( VoFR ) dan data sebagai enkapsulasi teknik, digunakan antara jaringan area lokal (LAN) melalui wide area network (WAN). Setiap pengguna akhir mendapatkan jalur pribadi (atau leased line ) ke Frame Relay simpul . Jaringan Frame Relay menangani transmisi melalui jalur yang sering berubah transparan untuk semua pengguna-akhir.

Frame Relay telah menjadi salah satu protokol WAN yang paling luas digunakan. Its murahnya (dibandingkan dengan leased line) yang disediakan salah satu alasan untuk popularitas. Kesederhanaan ekstrim mengkonfigurasi peralatan pengguna dalam jaringan Frame Relay menawarkan alasan lain untuk popularitas Frame Relay itu.

Dengan munculnya Ethernet lebih dari serat optik, MPLS , VPN dan berdedikasi broadband layanan seperti modem kabel dan DSL , akhirnya mungkin alat tenun untuk protokol Frame Relay dan enkapsulasi. [ kutipan diperlukan ] Namun banyak daerah pedesaan masih kurang DSL dan kabel modem layanan . Dalam kasus seperti jenis paling murah non-koneksi dial-up tetap menjadi 64-kbit / s frame-relay line. Jadi sebuah rantai ritel, misalnya, dapat menggunakan Frame Relay untuk menghubungkan toko pedesaan ke mereka WAN perusahaan.

Contoh : Transmisi digital/Fiber Optic

D. ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE

Asynchronous Transfer Mode atau Mode Transfer Asinkron (disingkat ATM) adalah nama sebuah jaringan khusus. ATM merupakan sebuah teknologi lapisan 2, yang dapat digunakan oleh siapa saja, namun sekaligus merupakan sebuah jaringan publik sebagaimana halnya Internet, dengan sistem pengalamatan yang dikelola secara rapi, sehingga setiap perangkat di dalam jaringan dapat memiliki sebuah identitas yang unik. [1] Asynchronous Transfer Mode merupakan standar internasional untuk cell relay di mana multiple tipe layanan (semisal suara digital / voice, video, atau data) disampaikan dalam fixed length (53-byte) cells.[2] Fixed-length cells memungkinkan proses sel (cell) berlangsung dalam perangkat keras (hardware), dengan demikian akan mereduksi keterlambatan transmit.[2] ATM dirancang untuk transmisi media berkecepatan tinggi seperti E3, SONET, dan T3.[2]

Pada ATM seluruh informasi yang akan ditransfer akan dibagi menjadi slot-slot dengan ukuran tetap yang disebut sel. Ukuran sel pada ATM adalah 53 oktet (1 oktet =8 bits) yang terdiri dari :[3]

• 48 oktet untuk field informasi, dan

• 5 oktet untuk header.

Sebagai teknologi yang dipilih oleh International Telecommunication Union (ITU, sebelumnya CCITT) untuk ISDN jalur lebar (broadband), protokol komunikasi ini juga dispesifikasikan oleh ATM Forum untuk transmisi 155 Mbps pada layer data link menggunakan kabel twisted pair dan aplikasi dalam pengkabelan fiber optik dalam versi yang terakselerasi dari Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing (ATDM) untuk membawa banyak aliran informasi melalui sebuah kanal komunikasi.[4]

ATM berbeda dalam beberapa hal dari teknologi data link lain yang lebih umum seperti Ethernet.[4] Sebagai contoh, ATM tidak melibatkan routing. Komponen perangkat keras yang disebut ATM Switch membentuk koneksi point to point antara kedua ujung transmisi, dan data mengalir langsung dari sumber ke tujuan.[4] ATM tidak menggunakan paket dengan panjang yang berubah-ubah, tetapi menggunakan sel berukuran tetap.[4]

Kinerja ATM diekspresikan dalam bentuk tingkatan OC (Optical Carrier), dan ditulis sebagai "OC-xxx".[4] Tingkatan kinerja setinggi 10 Gbps (OC-192) secara teknis bisa dicapai dalam ATM. OC-3 (155 Mbps) dan OC-12 (622 Mbps) adalah tingkatan kinerja yang lebih umum untuk ATM.[4] ATM dirancang untuk mendukung pengelolaan pita lebar (bandwidth) yang lebih mudah. Tanpa adanya routing dan dengan sel berukuran tetap, pengguna dapat dengan mudah memonitor dan mengendalikan pita lebar (bandwidth) ATM dibandingkan dengan Ethernet.[4]

Teknologi ATM menawarkan dua karakteristik yang memperbaiki tingkat kecepatan transfer data.[5] Pertama, besarnya paket yang dikomunikasikan menjadi lebih kecil jika dibandingkan dengan protokol-protokol untuk sistem telepon, sehingga memungkinkan paket-paket dari pengguna yang berbeda yang melewati jaringan pada waktu yang bersamaan dapat dikelompokkan secara merata.[5] Karakteristik ATM yang kedua adalah mengingkatnya kecepatan, dari 25 hingga 155 Mbps.[5] Bahkan, peralatan ATM dapat menggabungkan 16 saluran menajadi satu untuk menghasilkan kecepatan transfer hampir sebesar 2,5 juta bit per detik.[5]

Contoh : International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

Kesimpulan Dari ke-4 Teknologi yang paling sering digunakan untuk pengolahan data adalah Packet Switching.

EmoticonEmoticon

It's possible to trade profitably on the Forex, the nearly $2 trillion worldwide currency exchange market. But the odds are against you, even more so if you don't prepare and plan your trades. According to a 2014 Bloomberg report, several analyses of retail Forex trading, including one by the National Futures Association (NFA), the industry's regulatory body, concluded that more than two out of three Forex traders lose money. This suggests that self-education and caution are recommended. Here are some approaches that may improve your odds of taking a profit. Prepare Before You Begin Trading Because the Forex market is highly leveraged -- as much as 50 to 1 -- it can have the same appeal as buying a lottery ticket: some small chance of making a killing. This, however, isn't trading; it's gambling, with the odds long against you. A better way of entering the Forex market is to carefully prepare. Beginning with a practice account is helpful and risk-free. While you're trading in your practice account, read the most frequently recommended Forex trading books, among them Currency Forecasting: A Guide to Fundamental and Technical Models of Exchange Rate Determination, by Michael R. Rosenberg is short, not too sweet and highly admired introduction to the Forex market. Forex Strategies: Best Forex Strategies for High Profits and Reduced Risk, by Matthew Maybury is an excellent introduction to Forex trading. The Little Book of Currency Trading: How to Make Big Profits in the World of Forex, by Kathy Lien is another concise introduction that has stood the test of time. All three are available on Amazon. Rosenberg's book, unfortunately, is pricey, but it's widely available in public libraries. "Trading in the Zone: Master the Market with Confidence, Discipline and a Winning Attitude," by Mark Douglas is another good book that's available on Amazon, and, again, somewhat pricey, although the Kindle edition is not. Use the information gained from your reading to plan your trades before plunging in. The more you change your plan, the more you end up in trouble and the less likely that elusive forex profit will end up in your pocket. Diversify and Limit Your Risks Two strategies that belong in every trader's arsenal are: Diversification: Traders who execute many small traders, particularly in different markets where the correlation between markets is low, have a better chance of making a profit. Putting all your money in one big trade is always a bad idea. Familiarize yourself with ways guaranteeing a profit on an already profitable order, such as a trailing stop, and of limiting losses using stop and limit orders. These strategies and more are covered in the recommended books. Novice traders often make the mistake of concentrating on how to win; it's even more important to understand how to limit your losses. Be Patient Forex traders, particularly beginners, are prone to getting nervous if a trade does not go their way immediately, or if the trade goes into a little profit they get itchy to pull the plug and walk away with a small profit that could have been a significant profit with little downside risk using appropriate risk reduction strategies. In "On Any Given Sunday," Al Pacino reminds us that "football is a game of inches." That's a winning attitude in the Forex market as well. Remember that you are going to win some trades and lose others. Take satisfaction in the accumulation of a few more wins than losses. Over time, that could make you rich!

No car insurance resource would be complete without a comprehensive glossary of car insurance terms. We've compiled a list of terms and their definitions to better help you navigate the sometimes confusing world of insurance Accident - This is an unexpected sudden event that causes property damage to an automobile or bodily injury to a person. The event may be an at-fault or not-at fault and it may be report or unreported. An accident involving two vehicles may be termed a collision. Accident report form - This is the report filed by police, often called the police report, containing the important information regarding the vehicle collision. This report will include the names of all individuals involved, vehicles involved, property damaged and citations that were issued. Adjuster - This is the person who will evaluate the actual loss reported on the policy after an accident or other incident. They will make the determination on how much will be paid on the auto insurance policy by the Insurer. Agent - This is a licensed and trained individual who is authorized to sell and to service insurance policies for the auto insurance company. At Fault - This is the amount that you, the policy holder, contributed or caused the auto collision. This determines which insurance agency pays which portion of the losses. Auto Insurance Score - This is a score similar to credit score that evaluates the information in your consumer credit report. These scores are used when determining pricing for your auto insurance policy. Negative marks on your credit report can increase your auto insurance premiums. The use of this information to determine policy pricing does vary from state to state. Automobile Insurance - This is a type of insurance policy that covers and protect against losses involving automobiles. Auto Insurance policies include a wide range of coverage's depending on the policy holders needs. Liability for property damage and bodily injury, uninsured motorist, medical payments, comprehensive, and collision are some of the common coverage's offered under an auto insurance policy. Binder - This is a temporary short-term policy agreement put in place while a formal permanent policy is put into place or delivered. Bodily Injury Liability - This is the section of an insurance policy that covers the cost to anyone you may injure. It can include lost wages and medical expenses. Broker - This is a licensed individual who on your behalf sells and services various insurance policies. Claim - This is a formal notice made to your insurance company that a loss has occurred which may be covered under the terms of the auto insurance policy. Claims Adjuster - This person employed by the insurance agency will investigate and settle all claims and losses. A representative for the insurance agency to verify and ensure all parties involved with the loss, get compensated fairly and correctly. Collision - The portion of the insurance policy that covers damage to your vehicle from hitting another object. Objects can include but are not limited to; another vehicle, a building, curbs, guard rail, tree, telephone pole or fence. A deductible will apply. Your insurance company will go after the other parties insurance policy for these cost should they be at fault. Commission - This is the portion of the auto insurance policy that is paid to the insurance agent for selling and servicing the policy on behalf of the company. Comprehensive - This is a portion of the insurance policy that covers loss caused by anything other than a collision or running into another object. A deductible will apply. This includes but is not limited to vandalism, storm damage, fire, theft, etc. Covered loss - This is the damage to yourself, other people or property or your vehicle that is covered under the auto insurance policy. Declarations Page - This is the part of the insurance policy that includes the entire legal name of your insurance company, your full legal name, complete car information including vehicle identification numbers or VIN, policy information, policy number, deductible amounts. This page is usually the front page of the insurance policy. Deductible Amount - This is the portion of the auto insurance policy that is the amount the policy holder must pay up front before the Insurance Company contributes and is required to pay any benefits. This amount can be within a wide range in price and varies from approximately $100 - $1000. The larger amount you pay in a deductible the lower your normal monthly/yearly policy will cost. This is the portion of the auto insurance policy that would be applicable only to comprehensive or collision coverage. Discount - This is a reduction in the overall cost of your insurance policy. Deductions can be given for a variety of different reasons including a good driving record, grades, age, marital status, specific features and safety equipment on the automobile. Emergency Road Service - This is the part of an auto insurance policy that covers the cost of emergency services such as flat tires, keys locked in the car and towing services. Endorsement - This is any written change that is made to the auto insurance policy that is adding or removing coverage on the policy. Exclusion - This is the portion of the auto Insurance policy that includes any provision including people, places or things that are not covered under the insurance policy. First Party - This is the policyholder, the insured in an insurance policy. Gap Insurance - This is a type of auto insurance provided to people who lease or own a vehicle that is worth less than the amount of the loan. Gap auto Insurance will cover the amount between the actual cash value of the vehicle and the amount left on loan should the care be stolen or destroyed. High-Risk Driver - If you have a variety of negative marks on your insurance record including driving under the Influences, several traffic violations, etc. you may be labeled as a risk to the insurance company. This will increase your insurance policy or may make you ineligible for coverage. Insured - The policyholder (s) who are covered by the policy benefits in case of a loss or accident. Insurer - Is the Auto Insurance company who promises to pay the policy holder in case of loss or accident. Liability insurance - This part of an auto insurance policy which legally covers the damage and injuries you cause to other drivers and their vehicles when you are at fault in an accident. If you are sued and taken to court, liability coverage will apply to your legal costs that you incur. Most states will require drivers to carry some variation of liability coverage Insurance and this amount will vary state by state. Limits - This is the portion of the auto insurance policy that explains and lists the monetary limits the insurance company will pay out. In the situation you reach these limits the policy holder will be responsible for all other expenses. Medical Payments Coverage - This is the portion of an auto insurance policy that pays for medical expenses and lost wages to you and any passengers in your vehicle after an accident. It is also known as personal injury protection or PIP. Motor Vehicle Report - The motor vehicle report or MVR is a record issued by the state in which the policy holder resides in that will list the licensing status, any traffic violations, various suspensions and./ or refractions on your record. This is one of the tools used in determining the premium prices offered by the insurance agency. This is also used to determine the probability of you having a claim during your policy period. No-Fault Insurance - If you reside within a state with no-fault insurance laws and regulations, your auto insurance policy pays for your injuries no matter who caused the accident. No-fault insurance states include; Florida, Hawaii, Kansas, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Utah and Washington, DC.. Non-Renewal - This is the termination of an auto insurance policy on the given expiration date. All coverage will cease as of this date and insurer will be released of promised coverage. Personal Property Liability - This is the portion of the auto insurance policy that covers any damage or loss you cause to another person's personal property. Personal Injury Protection or PIP - This portion of an auto insurance policy pays for any lost wages or medical expenses to you and any passengers in your vehicle following an accident. PIP is also known as medical payments coverage. Premium - This is the amount charged to you monthly, yearly or any other duration agreed upon by insurance company and policy holder and paid directly to the auto insurance company. A premium is based on the type and amount of coverage you choose for your vehicle(s) and yourself. Other factors that will affect your insurance premium prices include your age, marital status, you're driving and credit report, the type of car you drive and whether you live in an urban or rural area. Premiums vary by insurance company and the location you live. Quotation - This is the amount or estimated amount the insurance will cost based on the information provided to the agent, broker or auto insurance company. Rescission.- This is the cancellation of the insurance policy dated back to its effective date. This would result in the full premium that was charged being returned. Rental Reimbursement - This is the portion of the auto insurance policy that covers the cost of an automobile rental of similar size should the covered vehicle be in repair from a reported incident. Replacement Cost - This is the amount of money it would cost to replace a lost or damaged item at it is actually new replacement value. This monetary amount would be based on a new identical item in the current local market. Salvage - This is the auto insurance policy holders property that is turned over tot eh insurance agency in a loss final settlement. Insurance companies will sell the salvage property in hopes to recoup some of its monetary loss due to the loss and settlement. Second Party - this is the actual insurance company in the auto insurance policy. Surcharge - This is the amount added to your auto insurance policy premium after a traffic violation or an accident in which you were found to be at fault. Third Party - This is another person other than the policy holder and auto insurance company who has faced a loss and may be able to collect and be compensated on behalf of the policy holder's negligence. Total Loss - This is complete destruction to the insured property of a policy holder. It has been determined that it would be a great sum of money to repair the item rather than replace the insured piece of property to its state prior to the loss. Towing Coverage - This is the portion of the auto insurance policy that covers a specified amount for towing services and related labor costs. Under insured Driver - This is the portion of an auto insurance policy which covers injuries to you caused by a driver without enough insurance to pay for the medical expenses you have incurred from the accident. This is portion of the policy can vary state by state as some states include damage to the car in this section. Uninsured Driver or Motorist - This is the portion of the auto insurance policy which covers injuries to you caused by a driver who was without liability insurance at the time of the accident. Uninsured driver or motorist coverage comes in two different sections; uninsured motorist bodily injury and uninsured motorist property damage. Uninsured motorist bodily injury coverage covers the injuries to you or any passenger in your vehicle when there is an accident with an uninsured driver. Uninsured motorist property damage coverage covers the cost for the property damage to your vehicle when there is an accident with an identified uninsured driver. Uninsured driver or motorist coverage must be offered when you purchase the required liability coverage for your vehicle. You must sign a declination waiver if you decline Uninsured driver or motorist coverage. The majority of states require drivers to carry some form of uninsured motorist coverage. Some states include damages to your car in this coverage. Vehicle Identification Number or VIN - A VIN is a 17 letter and number combination that is the identification of the specific vehicle. It will identify the make, modem and year of the automobile. This number is typically located on the driver's side window on the dash. It can also be found on the vehicles registration and title